美国百年反垄断史回顾：为什么要阻止公司一家独大？

IC实验室2021-04-10

2021年4月10日，市场监管总局发布通知，阿里巴巴集团实施“二选一”行为，构成《反垄断法》第十七条第一款第（四）项禁止“没有正当理由，限定交易相对人只能与其进行交易”的滥用市场支配地位行为。对此，依法作出行政处罚决定，责令阿里巴巴集团停止违法行为，并处以其2019年中国境内销售额4557.12亿元4%的罚款，计182.28亿元。回想前些日子，社区团购风口刚刚刮起来的时候，有一篇刷爆朋友圈的文章《...

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Comment（38）

AB_Iphone
·2021-04-12
For the benefit to all
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反卡
·2021-04-11
有沒有老鐵來互相評論一下p，謝謝！
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1
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新加坡的大螃蟹
·2021-04-11
有沒有老鐵來互相評論一下
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1
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- 新加坡的大螃蟹:
  谢谢老铁
  2021-04-11
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- 云里梦里飞:
  来了来了
  2021-04-11
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我是韭皇Una是韭皇后
·2021-04-11
必須打擊巨頭，防止資本主義在社會主義國家蔓延?
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点金胜手刘志强
·2021-04-11
護城河
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1
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Skyyukk
·2021-04-11
[呆住] [呆住]
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小苹果APPLE
·2021-04-11
大了不聽話，[笑哭]
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faysl
·2021-04-11
6
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Ikhas
·2021-04-11
還可以催生小公司成長爲巨頭。
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雁翔云天
·2021-04-11
一家獨大是不可以的
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Alan_董
·2021-04-10
央視快評：“互聯網巨頭們你們也該與時俱進了，特斯拉都考慮造火箭上月球的事，你們還在爭奪一捆菜二斤蔥，長此以往，眼界咋成長。
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5
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- Alan_董:
  兄弟所言极是，道亦道非常道，天外有天人外有人。
  2021-04-12
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- cherryxy:
  马云和马斯克几年前有一场辩论，马云很不屑火箭和移民火星这些事情，他看不起马斯克，现在看来，马云眼界非常的窄
  2021-04-11
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小阿拉伯油王
·2021-04-10
反壟斷這麼的必要，資本派系扼殺創新
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1
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PatricYAU
·2021-04-10
上
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东山岛青
·2021-04-10
有道理
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slash弛
·2021-04-10
如此生活三十年，直到大廈崩塌～
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斌_2918
·2021-04-10
國外反壟斷:某一個單獨領悟的錢不能讓一家公司賺走。
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上善若水石家庄
·2021-04-10
我想的是壟斷可能是用一種方法得到不應得到的利益吧。
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- LAUGH:
  你要是淘宝的商家你就明白了
  2021-04-11
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微睡大叔
·2021-04-10
壟斷具有排他性，在自己壟斷的範圍內絕不允許出現其他不聽話的人。
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1
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云里梦里飞
·2021-04-10
收拾你不是因爲你坑害消費者單純就是得罪了上頭
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18
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- 海边的风:
  [强]
  2021-04-10
  Reply
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- Leelol:
  哈哈哈哈
  2021-04-10
  Reply
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- 6ATM6:
  还是这里的评论正常，什么微博，头条都是墙倒众人推，实在看着恶心
  2021-04-10
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kao
·2021-04-10
下一個該美團點評了，太霸道
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6
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- skyteeth:
  不会的，美团是狗腿子
  2021-04-10
  Reply
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href=https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1686666219519902293><strong>IC实验室</strong></a>\n\n\n</h4>\n\n</header>\n<article>\n<div>\n<p>2021年4月10日，市场监管总局发布通知，阿里巴巴集团实施“二选一”行为，构成《反垄断法》第十七条第一款第（四）项禁止“没有正当理由，限定交易相对人只能与其进行交易”的滥用市场支配地位行为。对此，依法作出行政处罚决定，责令阿里巴巴集团停止违法行为，并处以其2019年中国境内销售额4557.12亿元4%的罚款，计182.28亿元。回想前些日子，社区团购风口刚刚刮起来的时候，有一篇刷爆朋友圈的文章《...</p>\n\n<a href=\"https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1686666219519902293\">Source 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Dominant?","themeId":"81c758c661274c9ab0fbd2342f69dec5","isJumpTheme":false,"ttsUrl":"https://static.tigerbbs.com/3b46a9c575d55cfad06bbd397df819d5","symbols_score_info":{"00700":0.9,"09988":0.9,"BABA":0.9},"content_text":"2021年4月10日，市场监管总局发布通知，阿里巴巴集团实施“二选一”行为，构成《反垄断法》第十七条第一款第（四）项禁止“没有正当理由，限定交易相对人只能与其进行交易”的滥用市场支配地位行为。对此，依法作出行政处罚决定，责令阿里巴巴集团停止违法行为，并处以其2019年中国境内销售额4557.12亿元4%的罚款，计182.28亿元。回想前些日子，社区团购风口刚刚刮起来的时候，有一篇刷爆朋友圈的文章《互联网巨头正在夺走卖菜商贩的生计》。它的核心论点是互联网平台不讲武德，以巨额补贴的姿态进入社区团购、生鲜卖菜行业，挤压了中小商家的生存空间，尤其是菜场的菜贩，令人难过。就像工业革命里的纺织厂夺走了无数中小作坊的生意，电话夺走了电报的生意，手机抢走了电话的生意，汽车巨头淘汰了马车行业，数码相机淘汰了胶片工人，大型商场超市夺走了小卖部的生存空间。一旦企业做大，就有了中小商家不具有的优势，长期以往会形成垄断。如今的某些互联网平台也是一样，从点外卖到打车、看电影、旅游甚至买车买房，科技公司触角已经一点点伸进了普通人的日常生活。它们距离垄断，只有一步之遥了。我们今天通过美国历史上的三个企业故事，好好聊一聊垄断到底是什么，大企业到底是提高了经济效率，还是损害了大众福利。01世界上第一部反垄断法《反托拉斯法》诞生于1890年，是一部非常简陋的法案。因为无论是学术界还是政府，都还没有做好准备，就直接起草和推出了法案，最后还是得在法庭上具体问题具体分析。当时美国学术界和政府，对于垄断的认识都不深。哈佛大学的爱德华·黑斯廷斯·张伯伦，花了六年多的时间思考垄断和竞争。他率先发现，由于每个企业都是独特的，因此它们都有一定的垄断性，有一定的控制价格能力；同时它们又是彼此竞争的，这种竞争不会像经济学的完全竞争那样，有无数个参与者，所以也不会把价格压缩到只能收回成本那么低。张伯伦的理论融合了竞争和垄断，被称为「垄断竞争理论」。它把大众的认知，从完全垄断、完全竞争的二元论，推动到了垄断和竞争程度的讨论。哈佛大学的一批经济学家加入其中深入研究，史称「哈佛学派」。「SCP模型」的主导者乔·贝恩完全继承了张伯伦的理论，强调不同企业的规模差异是垄断的源头。市场竞争和规模的关系决定了产业集中度。一旦企业在规模巨大的基础上形成垄断，就会充分利用垄断地位和其他人一起限制产出、提高价格，获得超额利润，最后通过建造行业壁垒，使超额利润长期化。从1950年代开始，美国政府全盘接受了「哈佛学派」的观点，规模大就是企业的原罪，凡是大企业都会形成垄断。直到「芝加哥学派」的出现，正面挑战了「SCP模型」。「芝加哥学派」大胆提出，「SCP模型」错误地把相关性当做因果性。「芝加哥学派」十分反感哈佛用「SCP模型」来引导反垄断实践，干预市场运行。在他们看来，只要一个行业没有人为进入壁垒，那么企业长久获得高份额的理由只有一个，那就是产品或者服务比对手更优秀。如果按照「SCP模型」来反垄断，那就是惩罚一个优秀企业，这是破坏正常竞争。当时发生的两起反垄断案件，涉及的AT&T和$IBM(IBM)$，就是两大学派之间的交锋。既然哈佛大学认为，规模大就是垄断，司法部立刻想到了美国电话电报公司AT&T。1974年，联邦政府正式起诉AT&T，理由是利用从电子设备获得的利润补贴电话网络，阻止其他运营商链接到本地制造商，通过拒绝购买非贝尔供应商的设备，垄断了电信设备市场。这个官司一打就是近10年，AT&T在1982年同意接受司法部裁决方案。1984年这家全美最大的通信公司被拆分成7个大型区域性电话控股公司，只保留了长途电话业务和贝尔实验室、西电公司，规模和销售额都被削减了80%以上。大众和政府普遍认为，AT&T的拆分推动了通讯领域的竞争和创新，过了几年后才反应过来，打败垄断的并不是拆分或者反垄断法案本身，而是涌现出的技术创新。在这之前，AT&T之所以能发展壮大，都是依赖于贝尔实验室的各种专利商业化。政府反垄断的第一个杀手锏，就是强迫贝尔实验室和AT&T开放晶体管专利，让美国公司免费获得。专利授权开放后，AT&T还承诺不制造晶体管，于是一大批后继者纷纷杀入市场。IBM、德州仪器、飞歌都是在这个时期成立的，正式开启了半导体时代，为之后的个人计算机奠定了技术基础。萨缪尔森在《经济学》一书中说：贝尔体系的解体，向人们清楚地揭示了这样一个真理：迅猛发展的技术革新，并不需要依赖于垄断的力量。如果说贝尔实验室抱着晶体管专利不放手，信息时代和个人电脑的普及可能要晚来十几年。在公司被拆分之后，曾经不可一世的AT&T获得了一个滑稽的外号，叫「孤儿寡母公司」。它的意思是，任何美国单亲家庭都可以买入这家公司的股票，它不但业绩稳定常年上涨，每季度还有稳定的分红，让没有收入的人都能获得稳定的生活。单看AT&T本身，它并没有因为反垄断而衰落，虽然丢掉了国内电话业务，却依旧是通信设备唯一供应商，在海外市场也是行业龙头。一直到1995年AT&T开始自己折腾自己，管理层的短视叠加互联网泡沫，才让AT&T迅速走下神坛。那就是另一个故事了，有空和大家好好聊聊。IBM就比AT&T幸运很多，没有遭到强制拆分。1970年代，IBM公司是大型电脑主机市场毫无疑问的王者，旗下产品S/360、S/370型电脑横扫整个市场。体量太大就容易成为当局的目标。早在1967年IBM就接到过反垄断调查通知。这场诉讼从各种意义上都非常重磅，光是控制数据这一项诉讼，资料就多达1亿2千万页，精选出的文件重达87吨。IBM为了应对，调集超过1000名法律专家，光是证人就超过400人。出人意料的是，IBM自知理亏，率先认怂。在被司法部起诉5个月后，IBM宣布一项重大举措，把向用户捆绑式销售软件和服务的模式，改为分别计价销售，也就是所谓的价格分离，相当于承认了当局的指控。随着诉讼的推进，IBM又改变了过去软硬件生态闭环的做法。由于S/360、S/370等大型电脑主机产品是公司的利润支柱，IBM决定开放公司政治斗争的产物——IBM/PC，从英特尔采购CPU，让微软编写操作系统，同时开放软硬件技术标准，允许中小企业制造IBM/PC兼容机。于是，商业历史上最戏剧的一幕发生了。1981年8月12日，IBM发布个人电脑IBM/PC。2个月之后所有技术标准和细节完全公开，个人电脑PC在市场上大获成功。接下来市场上崛起的新公司，大家就都很熟悉了。微软和英特尔就是诞生在这个时期，顺带着把惠普、戴尔、联想等制造厂商捧上神坛。它们从中小企业成长为各自行业的龙头老大，一个全新的桌面互联网年代来临，硅谷也进入了新时期。IBM选择以开放的姿态，和各路厂家合作，并不是在大发善心，而是迫不得已必须这么做。这是一场诸神的黄昏，一场权力的转移和交接，中小公司终于能在大公司的阴影下，慢慢成长起来。也正是在1990年代初期，美国司法和贸易委员会基本放弃哈佛的「SCP模型」，把合并前后的经济效率，作为判断垄断的标准。没有真正永恒的垄断，只有不断前进的技术浪潮，推升着新的企业出现，突破原有的效率阈值。02对于巨头来说，它们并不是不能创新，而是不敢创新。IBM前董事长、CEO路易斯·郭士纳在90年代加入公司后，惊讶地发现，关系数据库、网络硬件、网络软件、UNIX处理器以及其他更多的成果，都是在IBM的实验室中研制出来的，但就是进不了市场。后来他才明白，一旦这些技术里的任何一个商业化了，自家的产品S型大主机就再也没有用武之地了，因此IBM宁愿雪藏新技术，也不愿意讲它们推向市场。不仅如此，新一代IT行业巨头，会直接从根源上扼杀创新。凡是用过Windows的人，都知道IE浏览器，但是大部分人不知道，它并不是微软自己研发的，而是微软直接收购了一家小公司，然后进行的改造。最早的浏览器公司是网景，它的故事和微软完全不同。它的成长速度惊人，从成立到上市，它只花了16个月，而微软花了11年。《华尔街日报》的说法是：「通用汽车公司花了43年的时间才成为一家市值27亿美元的公司，网景只花了大约一分钟。」网景上市的时候还没有盈利，成立以来累计亏损1278万美元。按照以往的成功经验，一家新科技公司最好在至少连续四个季度盈利后再考虑IPO，但网景的成功颠覆了华尔街的想象。网景在纳斯达克上市，翻开了互联网公司造富神话的第一页。1995年8月9日，网景在纳斯达克IPO，当天股价从28美元涨到了58.25美元，公司市值达到了21亿美元。网景创始人吉姆·克拉克的股份在IPO当天价值6.63亿美元；另一位创始人马克·安德森身价也达到了5800万美元。后知后觉的微软终于反应过来，直接从一家小公司Spyglass手里购买了授权，推出自己的IE浏览器，采用捆绑操作系统的模式，安装到用户的电脑里去。微软内部邮件说：切断网景的氧气供给。后来的故事大家都看到了，在Windows巨大的市场占有率面前，网景不堪一击。另一方面，微软得到了市场和利润，失去了口碑。并且从1998年到2001年，微软和美国司法部展开了旷日持久的拉锯战。最后双方达成了和解，当时小布什政府决定不再试图拆分微软公司，而是禁止微软的搭售行为，同时要求微软确保Windows软件和非Windows软件的兼容性。三个反垄断案例，共同说明了一个问题，反垄断的核心关注点正在回归非法竞争，经济学家和法学家越来越偏向于限制大企业，然后把垄断交给新公司和技术创新去解决。03谷歌、亚马逊和Facebook这样的第三代互联网巨头，就是在反垄断的保护下，超越老前辈微软。如果大家看过电影《社交网络》，就知道当年马克·扎克伯格创办Facebook的时候，有一位合伙人叫克里斯·休斯。他已经离职多年，却在2020年5月发布了一篇长文，标题是「It’s Time to Break Up Facebook」。克里斯认为Facebook的垄断体现在三个方面：1.大约70%的美国成年人使用社交媒体，其中绝大多数会使用Facebook产品。2.Facebook估值是五万亿美元，占据了全球社交网络收入的80%以上。3.复制对手的商业模式，用技术与庞大用户体量打压对手，在自身平台屏蔽竞争对手产品。美国众议院司法委员会，也早就开启了对科技公司的反垄断调查，10月份发布了一份449页的报告，认为Facebook、苹果、亚马逊、谷歌等公司，都有利用致命收购打压对手、收取超高服务费，迫使小企业签订合约的垄断行为。这份报告显示，谷歌在搜索结果中优先展示自己的产品来打击竞争对手；亚马逊利用其作为最大在线零售商的优势，阻碍潜在竞争对手；苹果垄断了iPhone和iPad应用市场，从应用开发者的销售中抽取过多佣金；Facebook为了维持和扩大垄断地位，时常采取收购竞争对手，甚至通过复制竞争对手服务达到目的。可以说，对互联网巨头的调查，正是反映出当下这个时代，垄断与反垄断之间的战争又进入了新的位面。当大公司成为赛博时代的基础设施，如何防止他们滥用数据，操控市场和用户成为了全新的主题。04总结一下反垄断诞生的一百多年以来，走过了三个阶段。第一阶段反对的是大型企业托拉斯的联合形态，第二阶段是反对巨头的技术独裁与压制，第三阶段是反对无处不在的大数据和算法操控。美国的反垄断核心，已经不再只盯着市场份额垄断，规模大不一定意味着被罚款和限制。它更多的是希望摁住巨头们骚动的手和跃跃欲试心，防止他们利用自身在某一领域的垄断地位，实施在另一领域的垄断。而在大洋彼岸的欧盟，和美国的反垄断逻辑就有着巨大差别。欧盟很喜欢直接进行真金白银的罚款，它对微软开出16.8亿欧元罚单，英特尔的则是10.6亿欧元，谷歌的罚单更是高达82.3亿欧元。但罚款只是让巨头割肉，解决不了根本问题，如何给正在创新中的小企业更多生存空间，催生新一波技术革命浪潮，才是正确的方向。当互联网企业都朝着巨型综合平台发展的时候，就必须要思考会对行业产生什么影响，对每一个行业里的人带来怎样的影响。尊重每一个行业的历史，不是利用廉价资本侵入一个行业，再摧毁它。在翻阅IBM资料，看到它主动开放PC软硬件标准，联合各路厂商，开启下一个桌面个人电脑新时代的时候，我不禁想到了中国互联网的第一次世界大战：腾讯QQ和奇虎360。在此之前腾讯的目标，是成为互联网的水和电。却被外界戏称为「走所有的路，让其他公司无路可走。」360的出现，让腾讯感觉到了巨大的威胁，对标360安全卫士，腾讯推出了自家的QQ医生和电脑管家。360选择正面反击，推出扣扣保镖，屏蔽QQ广告、弹窗。这也迫使战争全面升级，腾讯最后「做了一个艰难的决定」，让用户二选一，要么卸载360，要么卸载QQ。最后工信部出面，从中协调。2010年11月20日，责令两家公司道歉、妥善处理软件兼容问题。从结果来看，这场战争没有失败者，360一战成名完成上市，腾讯组织多次反思会，愿景变为用户为本、科技向善。10年过去了，当我们再次审视巨头的时候，它们变得善良了么？风口变化太快，经常能看到有猪飞上天，从千团大战到共享打车，从五颜六色自行车到琳琅满目的无人货架，从P2P暴雷到比特币暴涨，从O2O到生鲜买菜。表面上打得不亦乐乎，仔细一看背后全都是各种派系的互联网巨头。它们改变了策略，不屑于也不敢再亲自下场斩杀小玩家。变得越来越聪明了，不是选择合纵连横尽早结束战争，就是隐居幕后做操盘手，等时机成熟再来收割。监管的铁锤，可能会迟到，但绝不缺席。12月11日中共中央政治局召开会议，要求强化反垄断和防止资本无序扩张。这让我想到《杀死那个石家庄人》，里面唱道：「如此生活三十年，直到大厦崩塌。」","kind":"news","is_publish_news":true,"is_publish_highlight":true,"is_publish_live":false,"is_publish_wemedia":null,"editions":null,"column":"","sentiment":"0","news_tag":"","news_rank":0,"symbols":[],"gpt_button":1},"commentList":[{"id":342954634,"gmtCreate":1618162635628,"gmtModify":1704707039511,"author":{"id":"3574395209516109","authorId":"3574395209516109","name":"AB_Iphone","avatar":"https://static.laohu8.com/default-avatar.jpg","vip":1,"crmLevel":1,"crmLevelSwitch":0,"idStr":"3574395209516109","authorIdStr":"3574395209516109"},"htmlText":"For 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